continued: "The Influence of U.S. Media Use and Demographic Factors on Argentine Men and Women About Perceptions of U.S. Lifestyle" by Mary E. Beadle
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Are there differences between males and females in Argentine business and their perceptions of U.S. social reality, perceived realism and media use?

Differences between males and females were minimal. Using t-tests, significant differences (p<.05) were found between males and females in the Perceived Realism Index (PRI). Males perceived the media to be less realistic than females. However both perceived the media as somewhat unrealistic. Males watched more U.S. television than females (p<.05). No other significant difference were found, including with the four perceptual factors.

Are there differences between heavy (more than four hours per day) and light (less than four hours per day) viewers of television who work in Argentine business and in their perceptions of U.S. social reality, perceived realism, and media use?

This sample consisted of 19 heavy viewers out of 316 respondents. Due to the small number of heavy viewers, statistical analysis of differences between heavy and light viewers were not performed. Correlations were run between reported over all television viewing (light, medium, heavy), perceived realism and the four perceptual factors. Further, a series of t-test between those that chose to watch a particular medium or television program and those that did not were run to determine any differences in perceptions between users and non-users of a specific type of program or media source. Although the sample had a very small number of heavy televison users, the percentage of respondents who watch U.S. television was 259 or 82% of the sample. They also use other U.S. media, including print and U.S. sources on the Internet.

Further, the respondents were asked to give their perceptions on the impact of U.S. television in Argentina. The results indicate that as a group these respondents were not particularly concerned about the impact of U.S. media in Argentina (Table 4). media was not seen as threatening or overwhelming.

There was a significant correlation (p<.05) between Factor 2 and overall TV hours (low--less than one hour/day, medium--one to 3 hours/day, high--more than 4 hours per day). The more one watched televison, the less agreement there was with the positive qualities about U.S. citizens (Table 5). This finding tends to contradict some previously reported studies related to heavy television viewers that an increase in television viewing results in a more positive picture of the U.S. However, in this sample, few were heavy viewers. Also, this was an older and more educated group than those in some of the reported studies and half of whom had previous contact with U.S. citizens in a business setting. Perhaps these circumstances influence the perceptions in a different way than previously reported.

Despite a lack of heavy viewers and a perception that U.S. media has little importance, correlations between the four perceptual factors and the PRI resulted in significant differences (p< .05) with Factor 2 and Factor 3. Those who perceived television to be more realistic and accurate about foreign countries agreed more with the positive factors about the U.S. Those who perceived televison to be more realistic tended to give higher percentages of household conditions and thus were more accurate (Table 5).

There was a significant difference on Factor 4 between those who watched CNN (t-value=-1.43; p<.05) or read Newsweek magazine (t-value=-2.51; p<.05) than for those who did not. Those who watched CNN (N=176) or read Newsweek (N=41) agreed more with the negative statements about U.S. society. Further analysis indicated that the viewers of CNN and readers of Newsweek were essentially the same people; there were only five people who did not use both media. Newsweek readers also perceived television as less realistic than those who did not read Newsweek (Table 6).

Two other significant differences were found with program viewers and non-viewers. Those who watched ESPN (N=165; 52.5%) considered the media less realistic than those who did not watch ESPN (Table 6). One other program showed significant differences between viewers and non-viewers, Kung Fu (N=164;51.9%) . Those who watched it perceived the media as less realistic than those who did not watch it (Table 6). No significant differences were found between users and non-users of the Internet.

Are there differences between those Argentine business people who use U.S. print media and those who do not in their perceptions of U.S. social reality and perceived realism?

Overall time spent reading U.S. newspapers and magazine was negatively correlated with Factor 1 and Factor 2 (p < .01). Those who read more frequently had higher estimates of profession in the U. S. and were less accurate and they agreed less with the positive statements about Americans. (See above for discussion of Newsweek). No other significant differences were found.

Are there differences between those Argentine business people who have personal contact with U.S. citizens and those who do not in their perceptions of U.S. social reality and perceived realism?

To determine the relationship between personal contact and perceptual statements, correlations were run with the number of trips to the U.S. For items in which a yes/no responses was given, t-tests were run to determine if any differences existed between those who had some personal contact and those who do not(phone, face to face, friends in the U.S.).

The number of trips to the U.S. was negatively correlated with Factors 1, 3 and 4 (p< .05). The estimates of those who had traveled more to the U.S. were lower and more accurate in regard to the number of professionals in the U.S., were lower and more accurate in their estimates of household conditions, and tended to disagree with the statements that U.S. citizens live in a violent society (Table 8).

Personal contact indicated significant differences (p.<.01) with Factor 4 (Table 7). Those who had personal contact agreed less with the negative statements concerning violence and family life. Personal contact was also significant with Factor 1 (p<.01). Those who had personal contact were lower in estimates of the number of professionals and thus were more accurate. Those who had personal contact also perceived the media (PRI) as less real than those who had no personal contact (t-value=-.60; p<.05).

Phone contact indicated significant differences with two factors: Factor 1 (p.< .01) and Factor 4 (p.<.01). Those who had phone contact estimated a lower percentage of professionals, which was more accurate and agreed less with the negative statements about U.S. citizens. Those who had friends in the U.S. were significantly different (p<.01) on the perception of negatives qualities. Those who had friends in the U.S. perceived Americans less negatively than those who did not (Table 7).

Is age, ability to understand English or education correlated with perceptions of U.S. social reality?

Three demographic factors were correlated with the four perceptual factors: age, level of education and perceived ability to speak English (Table 8). Factor 1 was correlated with education, age and English (p< .01). Older people had lower estimates of U.S. professional and were more accurate; those who were more educated had lower estimates of U.S. professions and were more accurate; those who perceived themselves to speak better English were lower in estimates and more accurate. Factor 2 was negatively correlated with level of education (p<.05). Those who were more educated agreed more with the positive statements about Americans. Factor 3 also was negatively correlated with level of education (p<.05); the more education the lower their perceptions of household items such as air conditioning and more than two autos and were generally more accurate.

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to explore whether U.S. television specifically and U.S. media generally influences the perception of U.S. social reality on Argentine business men and women. This is an important study since older audiences have not been the subject of research as frequently as university and high school students. Also, if U.S. media is influencing perceptions and thus communications between the U.S. and Argentina, U.S. businesses could provide improved training and better methods for intercultural business communication based on this knowledge. Better performance may result. Research reports from cultivation studies and intercultural business communication were reviewed and resulted in the development of this survey used for this study.

Based on the findings of the survey, this study showed that male viewers were significantly different than females viewers in only two areas. However this differences did not result in any significant differences in the perceptions of U.S. social reality. This may be due to a number of other factors: age, educations, experience, lack of television, or personal contact. Differences that were found, indicate that all these factors influence perception in some way and further research is necessary.

Personal contact seems to be an important influence on perceptions of Argentines. This lends support to the idea than Latin Americans prefer face to face contact. This is also supported by the generally positive perceptions those who had previous contact with U.S. business people had. Another indication of the importance of personal contact is the tendency to perceive the media as less realistic for those who had personal contact.

Some demographic characteristics were correlated with perceptions. This may indicate experience, education and sophistication also influence perceptions and is worth further exploration. Since older audiences may not be heavy users of television, this calls into question the use of cultivation as a theoretical framework for the study of media impact in foreign countries with older audiences.

Another important contribution to the development of perceptions is attitudes. A t-test indicated that those who chose a negative word to describe a U.S. business person they had worked with, also agreed more with the negative perceptions of Factor 4 (p<.01; t-value=2.04). Perhaps those who have negative attitudes toward the U.S. will focus on the qualities that support this belief. Unfortunately, this doesn’t answer the questions of media influence on those attitudes, particularly in Argentina where the influence of U.S. media has been felt for a long time. Further studies are needed to explore this.

A question first posed by Schment and Rogers in 1984 concerned the effects of different types of programming such as entertainment or news. It is interesting to note that the television shows that did show some differences between viewers and non-viewers were in each of these categories. Viewers of CNN held more negative perceptions of U.S. social reality than those who did not. Those who watched some of the entertainment programming perceived the media to be less real than those who did not watch them. Perhaps this says more about the viewer and their predisposition to choose a U.S. television program for their own reasons rather than U.S. television influencing the viewer. One caution in reading too much into these differences is the lack of heavy television viewers in the sample. However, despite this problem, differences still resulted.

Two major results of cultivation research are differences in perceptions about social reality between heavy and light users of television and male and female viewers. This study offers little support for these two aspects of cultivation theory in international settings. It does seem to support the idea that the influence of foreign media on domestic audiences is quite weak (Elasmer and Hunter, 1993). However, results also indicate some effect on perceptions resulting from a variety of media exposure, personal contact and demographic factors. Generally, exposure to U.S. media results in development of a more accurate picture of U.S. living conditions but seems also to result in a less positive perception of a U.S. citizen’s personal qualities. The influence of CNN on the development of more negative perceptions about U.S. citizens is interesting. Argentines have a more accurate picture of living conditions, but seem to develop some less positive perceptions about American citizens. Also, it appears that those who watch ESPN and Kung Fu that they are quite aware of the fantasy world of television entertainment.

The results of this study indicate that personal contact is important in dispelling inaccurate perceptions about personal qualities of foreigners and may be more influential for adults than exposure to U.S. media. Further research that includes the cumulative effect of using a variety of U.S. media over time combined with other factors such as education, family, income, religion, other interpersonal contacts is needed. The challenge for this research agenda is to develop a framework that includes all of these variables. One idea that may be helpful is cultural capital. Media choices are influenced by various factors such as education, family, travel, religion and membership in associations. However, media, such as television, is also an aspect of cultural capital. As Straubhaar (1999) reminds us, the relationship of media to individual perceptions is not a simple one of effects. Media are sources of ideas about society, but so are other sources, such as travel. It is a complex interaction and one the warrants additional study. TBS

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References
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Mary E. Beadle, PhD is an associate professor of communications at John Carroll University located near Cleveland, Ohio. She teaches in the undergraduate communications program and in the graduate program in communications management. Her research interests include international media and media history. She has completed several research projects in South America and has conducted communication seminars in Russia, Paraguay and Argentina. She currently serves as vice-chair of the International Division of the Broadcast Education Association.