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By
John Shoup
Arabic language
satellite television has over the past three years broadcast
a number of excellent historical dramas set in late antiquity
or in early Islamic periods.(1) These programs usually are first
shown as part of the Ramadan line up, guaranteeing a large viewing
audience.(2) One of the new aspects of these series is that
most of them have been cooperative productions between Syrian,
Jordanian, Moroccan, and Emirati TV involving well known actors
from these and other Arab countries such as Egypt and Saudi
Arabia. The focus of three of the most popular ones, Zaman
al-Wasl, Saqr al-Quraysh, and Tariq has been Arab/Muslim
Spain—Al Andalus.(3)
The choice of Al Andalus is interesting; a place no longer Arab
or Muslim, but where the Arabs, Berbers, and local peoples produced
one of the most brilliant periods of Arab/Muslim civilization.
Yet, it is gone today, with only glimpses into what it was through
architecture, music, and poetry. The loss of what was the confidence
and strength of Umayyad Al Andalus, the multicultural and multi-religious
nature of the society, the tolerance and understanding between
peoples, can be contrasted with the current Arab world where
there is little tolerance and understanding. It is the contention
here that the message of these historical dramas—the comparison
of what was with what is the situation of modern Arabs and Muslims—is
the reason why Al Andalus recently has been a the subject of
a number of television musalsalat.(4)
Zaman
al-Wasl (Time of Connection) is set during the height of
the Umayyads in Spain during the reigns of al-Hakim I (796-822
AD) and ‘Abd al-Rahman II (822-852 AD). The many subplots
revolve around characters from the major ethnic groups that
made up the population. Arabs, Berbers, Visigoths, Gypsies,
Muslims, and Christians all play their part to foil the attempts
by the King of Castile and his Viking allies from destroying
Al Andalus. The real danger is not from external forces, but
from within Al Andalus itself. Political repression by Amir
al-Hakim I led to the alienation of many Berbers and there are
attempts by some Christians, clandestinely supported by the
King of Castile, to undermine the social unity between Muslims,
Jews, and Christians. During al-Hakim’s reign, laws are
passed against the Gypsies making it illegal for them to serve
in the armed forces or to live inside cities. And, more importantly
for the future instability of the state, a new slave woman,
brought from Baghdad by the famous singer Ziryab,(5) plots to
ensnare Amir ‘Abd al-Rahman II and place their son on
the throne instead of his legitimate son (the future Amir Muhammad
I) by a noble Arab princess.
All of the
plots come to nothing as the Christian, Jewish, and Muslim subjects
of Amir ‘Abd al-Rahman II sign a pledge of loyalty written
with their own blood which the leaders of the three communities
present to him and declare they will fight to protect Al Andalus.
The Berbers are brought back into the political fold as equals
with the Arabs and even the Gypsies are given equal treatment
before the law by ‘Abd al-Rahman II. The state is saved
from external military threats (Castile and the Vikings) and
nearly all internal problems are solved through the use of wise
council and the principle of Islam. Yet, the state will
fall and the greatness will be lost. The epilogue to
the series tells the viewers why. The plots from within the
family to take the throne from the legitimate heirs will continue—the
slave woman and her son will not give up so easily. Weakened
from within, social justice will be forgotten. Old divisions
will reemerge not only between Arabs and Berbers, but between
the three religions. Small-minded self interests will override
the grander ideals the state once stood for. The result will
be the collapse of Al Andalus and the eventual conquest by Castile.
The comparisons
with today’s Arab world are unmistakable. Arab states
are weakened from the outside by military threat, but the real
weaknesses—the ones that really matter—are internal
to the Arab and Muslim world. The series ends with the question
when will the Arabs and Muslims be great again? When
will Al Andalus be “real” again? In other words,
when will the social strengths so exemplified in the Andalusian
model be realized in the modern Arab Muslim experience? According
to the serial’s logic, it is clear that neither multiculturalism
nor religious diversity prevented Arabs and Muslims from becoming
a great power in the past. On the contrary, these were among
the characteristics that made Al Andalus such a vibrant civilization.
The problem is not that the Arabs and Muslims are battling external
military threats, whether from Israel or even the United States.
Instead, the problem is that the Arabs and Muslims no longer
believe in their own possibilities, and when they revive this
belief, then they will “recapture” the spirit of
Al Andalus and not before.(6)
Another
musalsal, Saqr al-Quraysh (Hawk of the Quraysh)
chronicles the life of the Umayyad Prince ‘Abd al-Rahman
I (756-788 AD) who founded the Umayyad dynasty in Spain. The
series begins with the long process of the ‘Abbasid revolution
and the wayward apolitical life of the prince as a young man.
The story follows his many adventures with his slave Badr as
the two travel from Syria to Al Andalus. Unlike Zaman al-Wasl
which was filmed primarily in Morocco with some Syrian actors,
Saqr al-Quraysh is truly a cooperative venture between
Syria and Morocco. Much of it was filmed in Morocco and a number
of major, well-known Moroccan actors play important roles, such
as that of the close friend, confidant, and personal slave,
Badr. The series not only chronicles the life of the prince,
but also the life of the slave.
Again the
message of the series is that both the strengths of the Arab/Muslim
Al Andalus were there at the founding of the state, but the
weaknesses were present too. Once Abd al-Rahman realizes that
he must try his luck in Spain, he sends his slave Badr to evaluate
political conditions and ascertain how much support he would
have should he try to establish his own emirate. Badr is befriended
by a Visigoth who recently converted to Islam. The Visigoth
explains the sorry state of affairs in Al Andalus where governor
after governor(7) failed to contain bloody conflicts between
Arab and Berber tribes. Badr finds strong Umayyad support among
Syrian Arabs who were clients of the Umayyads and the result
is the triumph of ‘Abd al-Rahman who becomes ‘Abd
al-Rahman I al-Dakhil, the first Amir of an independent
and united Umayyad Al Andalus.
Once in
power the story does not end, however. ‘Abd al-Rahman
finds that he can not even trust members of his own family who
he executes for treason. He becomes distrustful of even his
closest friend, his slave Badr, whom he publicly strips of all
of his honors, driving him from court. Heartbroken, Badr leaves
with his wife to live in solitude away from cities and people.
‘Abd al-Rahman finds himself growing lonelier and more
isolated eventually leading him to seek out his long-time friend
and companion. He finds Badr living in poverty, driven nearly
mad by his grief for his dead wife. In the ranting of the “fool”
Badr, ‘Abd al-Rahman sees his own follies (and, one could
venture, similar follies of distrust, paranoia, and isolation
of modern Arab leaders) and leaves Badr dancing at the foot
of his wife’s grave. In the end ‘Abd al-Rahman is
left alone with only the date tree he had brought from his native
Syria as his companion.
Like Zaman
al-Wasl, this series seems to argue that the strength of
Arab/Muslim Spain was in the unity of the people, no matter
the origins and no matter the religion. Justice, or social justice,
within society kept the various communities together, but the
lack of trust worked to destroy this unity. Once broken, the
ideal Arab-Muslim society became easy prey for external forces
such as the Castilians, but also other Muslims such as the Murabitin
(1056-1142 AD) and the Muwahidin (1130-1269 AD) who did not
share the same vision of the state and society with the Umayyads.(8)
The Umayyads are portrayed as supporters of not only the fine
arts of music and poetry, but also of architecture, engineering,
sciences, and medicine. In the series Zaman al-Wasl,
among the close councilors of Amir ‘Abd al-Rahman II are
poets, scientists, and philosophers.(9) He sends a poet as head
of his official delegation to the Byzantine emperor and one
of the scientists is given official encouragement to try to
invent a means to fly.(10) The advanced level of Arab learning
in Al Andalus and the high level of cultural attainment have
no equal in the Arab-Muslim world today. Western popular culture
fills the streets of any Arab city fueling Arab frustration
and anger. The series highlights this anger as well as the need
for an Arab-Muslim renaissance built on the Andalusian Arab-Muslim
model.
The most
recent (broadcast during Ramadan in 2004) of these historical
dramas set in Al Andalus is Tariq, the story of Tariq
bin Ziyad from his childhood to his conquest of Spain in the
name of Islam. Tariq involved a range of actors mainly
from Syria (the role of the Berber Tariq was played by a Syrian
actor), but included participation by Egyptian and Saudi actors
as well. While Saqr al-Quraysh remains more or less
faithful to what is known about the life of Abd al-Rahman I
al-Dakhil, Tariq takes a more creative approach.(11)
In the series, Tariq is born a Muslim of converted Berber parents
in what is today eastern Algeria or Tunisia. As a child he has
a vision of crossing the Straits at the head of an army and
an old, blind Muslim man predicts his future as a warrior for
the faith. It is his uncle who turns him away from his religion
and destiny and brings him to fight for the Berber king Kusaylah(12)
against the Arabs.
Eventually
Tariq learns the truth of his origins and brings himself back
to Islam. He becomes a client of the Arab commander Musa ibn
Nusayr who protects him from the continuing plots by jealous
Arabs, including the sons of the great Arab commander ‘Uqbah
bin Nafi.’(13) These men will eventually bring down both
Musa and Tariq when they return to Damascus by spreading lies
about them at court. The problems between Arabs and recently
converted Berbers are a key aspect of the plot—it is the
Arabs who cause the problems. Some Arab Muslims refuse to accept
Berber Muslims as equals and Musa bin Nusayr, in anger over
this refusal, humiliates the sons of ‘Uqbah by making
them sit in the same classes with recently converted Berbers
to (re)learn Islam. Tolerance and equality are key elements
to a real Islamic society as well as to good Islamic governance
Musa states.
While political
intrigue is happening on the Muslim side to eventually bring
down Musa and his client Tariq, the story weaves continual plots
between the Byzantine emperor with disgruntled Berbers, sons
of the defeated Queen al-Kahinah(14) , and the King of Spain.
Tariq eventually defeats the rebellious Berbers, his own people,
in the name of Islam. His reputation as a great military commander
and kind ruler(15) brings Count Julian, Count of Sebta, to him
to seek justice for his wronged daughter, Florinda, who had
been raped by the Spanish monarch Roderick. Count Julian is
not the only person who wants to see King Roderick fall. The
Bishop of Seville is already turning towards Islam through secret
conversations with a Muslim—and his brother has been disgraced
and exiled by Roderick.(16) The young son of Roderick’s
predecessor and Florinda’s fiancé also wants to
seek vengeance. Count Julian asks Tariq to allow the Berber
girl Lu’lu’ who was once Florinda’s handmaiden
to return in the hope that she could help Florinda recover her
mind. Lu’lu’ is now a Muslim and she willingly goes
to help her former mistress and is able to cure her mental condition.
Count Julian offers Tariq all the ships he wants or needs to
cross the Straits and take Spain. Tariq’s dream is realized
when Spain falls easily to the Muslims while Count Julian, the
Bishop of Seville, and others have their “revenge”
on Roderick.
The message
in the series Tariq is similar to that of the other
Andalusian dramas. When the Arabs and Berbers worked together
no military power could defeat them, not even the Byzantines,
the mightiest empire of the day. Muslims and Christians can
work together for the common good. Ethnic and religious differences
when blended in a positive environment create a strong new culture.
Al Andalus demonstrates the importance of such religious tolerance
while the multi-national nature of the production of these series
is another concrete demonstration of the success of Arab-Muslim
cooperation. The actors are both Muslim and Christian and those
from Syria, Morocco, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia play the parts
of Animist, Jewish, Christian, or Muslim characters. Much of
the financial backing, meanwhile, comes from the United Arab
Emirates. The series are filmed in both the Arab East (al-Mashriq
al-‘Arabi—mainly Syria) and North Africa (al-Maghrib
al-‘Arabi—mainly Morocco). This geographical
diversity is not lost on the audience.(17) The series Tariq,
for example, makes use of maps to help the audience better understand
the flow of events as they move from the court in Damascus to
Qayruwan, Tangiers, Sebta, Seville, or Toledo. In order to enable
the audience to better understand the geography of the serial,
names of cities that did not exist at the time of the series,
such as Marrakech, are found on the map. The maps allow the
viewer to understand in more concrete terms the great expanse
of the early Arab/Muslim empire and how it reached the furthest
borders of the Maghrib.
The question
is how do these series reflect the attitudes of most people
in the Arab world today? Would the majority of Arabs want to
live in a contemporary version of Al Andalus as portrayed on
TV? The contradiction between Andalusian society, as portrayed
in the serials, and the growth of anti-Western sentiment in
the Arab-Muslim world is interesting. Andalusian society is
shown to be tolerant of others and does not reject ideas from
non-Muslim sources. The scientists at the court of Amir Hakim
I and Amir Abd al-Rahman II quote the works of classical Greek
scholars. All of the serials emphasize the common cultural heritage
of Islam and Christianity.
What is
more interesting is the emergence of a new self-criticism. While
self-criticism in film and television is not new, its application
in these series is. Instead of blaming the current conditions
in the Arab world on foreign intervention or past colonialism,
the weakness of the Arab-Muslim world is placed firmly on their
own shoulders. As portrayed in these series the fall of Al Andalus
was due to the lack of unity and commitment by not only its
rulers but also its people. Weak and corrupt governments produce
an apathetic population who feel they have no stake in the state.
When there is a strong commitment from both the government and
the people, as was the case when the Amir ‘Abd al-Rahman
II faced threats from the King of Castile and his Viking allies,
no power can bring them down. Such self-criticism is a new and
positive change within the Arab world, and, it is ventured here
that it is the reason for the great popularity of these historical
dramas.(18)
John
Shoup earned a BA and MA in Middle Eastern Studies
and Arabic from the University of Utah and a PhD in Cultural
Anthropology from Washington University in St. Louis. He has
conducted field work in Lesotho, Jordan, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia,
Morocco, and most recently in Mauritania on topics related to
pastoralism, impact of tourism on local communities, traditional
land use systems, trans-Saharan trade, and popular culture.
Shoup taught at the American University in Cairo from 1990 to
1996 and at Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane, Morocco from 1996
to the present.
NOTES
1. In addition to those set in early periods of history, several
very good ones have examined more contemporary times. Al
Tariq ila Kabul or Road to Kabul examines the
Soviet occupation of Afghanistan and the subsequent rise of
the Taliban. The series was a Jordanian production meant for
Ramadan viewing in 2004. It was pulled from MBC after only four
episodes. A joint Syrian-Algerian production is set at the time
of the Algerian revolution and the trial of Jamilah Bouhired.
A young Syrian inspired by the radio broadcasts of her trial,
decides to come to Algeria to join the fight against the French.
For greater authenticity, Syrian scenes were filmed in Syria
with Syrian actors while those in Algeria were filmed in Algeria
with Algerian actors. Both Syrian and Algerian dialects of Arabic
are used. Syrian TV has produced several such series where the
diversity and unity of the Arabs (and the Arabic language) are
featured.
2. Satellite channels are broadcast from all Arab countries
and such Ramadan series are often broadcast on a number of different
channels. It was possible, due to the time differences across
the Arab world, to see the same series several times per day.
3. These two are Zaman al-Wasil and Saqr al-Quraysh
both joint Syrian-Moroccan productions. A recent third addition
to the growing list of such series is Tariq (bin Ziayd)
which was a massive production including Syrian, Moroccan, Egyptian,
and Saudi actors.
4. Pervious historical musalalat with political messages
have focused on ‘Abbasid Iraq and the plight of the Palestinians.
The change to Al Andalus is interesting in itself and there
are a number of possible reasons for the change. Perhaps the
general audience has become tired of the same topics over and
over again and Al Andalus is a fresh approach.
5. Ziryab was a famous musician and singer who left Baghdad
in anger and found welcome in the Umayyad court. He introduced
the Andalusians to number of eastern artistic innovations and
he continued to innovate once in Spain. He improved the ‘ud
by adding more strings as well introduced the format that would
evolve into the Andalusian muwashshah, a form of music
which uses local dialect in the chorus.
6. There is a similar message to the audience at the end of
the recent Jordanian series based on the life and poetry of
the pre-Islamic Arab prince Imru’ al-Qays. The Arabs of
the Jahiliyyah period were divided, weak, and under
foreign domination whether it was Byzantine or Persian, because
they allowed small tribal interests to keep them weak. When
given the opportunity to unite their leaders refused. Even his
own kinsmen, tribes closely related to that of Imru’ al-Qays,
refuse to help him avenge the death of his father, Hujur, and
recover his stolen kingdom. In the end he takes his case to
the Byzantine Emperor who agrees to help, but at a high price.
Imru’ al-Qays returns at the head of a Byzantine army
only to die of the plague before recovering his kingdom. The
Arabs of today are compared to those of the past and the aspect
of Jahiliyyah or “Period of Ignorance”
played upon with a number of levels of meaning for an Arabic
speaking audience. How different are the modern Arab states
from the bickering tribal “kingdoms” of Hira, Bani
Ghassan, and Kinda? Hira is a vassal of the Persians and the
Ghassanids are vassals of the Byznatines. Kinda and other kingdoms
are in turn vassals to either Hira or Bani Ghassan. The epilogue
to this series states the Prophet Muhammad and Islam brought
unity to the Arabs.
7. From the time of the Arab conquest of Al Andalus in 711 AD
to the arrival of the Umayyad Prince ‘Abd al-Rahman in
756 AD there was a total of twenty governors appointed by either
Damascus or Qayruwan (Tunisia), an average one every two years.
8. It can also be argued that the Umayyads represent the “Arab”
vision of both Islam and the Islamic state, while the others
such as the Murabitin, who were Berbers, represent the less
tolerant and more fanatical subsequent developments that weakened
the Arabs and the Muslims. While the historical “truth”
of such simplistic analysis can easily be argued, nonetheless
in the popular mind, it is believable.
9. Arab media condemnation of ‘Awlamah or globalization
was coined in the late 1980s by Egyptian newspaper editors and
subsequently adopted by the rest of the Arab media. Articles
in newspapers such as Al Ahram warned of cultural death
at the hands of Western, mainly American, popular culture. The
fears of Western cultural domination can also be found in the
recent writings of Muslim clerics as well.
10. The film Al Masirah by the Egyptian director Yousef
Chahine uses the life of the Arab philosopher ibn Rushd and
the intolerance of those around the Sultan to illustrate a similar
point. There is no problem between science and Islam or philosophy
and Islam, but between narrow minded men and those with vision.
Al Masirah was not a major success in Egypt, but has
done fairly well in North Africa, especially in Morocco where
it is a popular rental video.
11. Little is known of historical Tariq bin Ziyad’s childhood
and early life. Tariq and his Arab patron Musa ibn Nusayr fell
out over Tariq’s conquest of Spain and when Musa brought
to Damascus by the Umayyad Khalifah, in disgrace, Tariq, in
an attempt to save himself, turns against his former patron.
The musalsal does not depict this.
12. Kusaylah bin Lamzam was king of the Awraba Berbers of western
Algeria and eastern Morocco. He was one of the main leaders
of the Berber resistance to the Arabs and allied himself with
the Byzantines. He was captured by ‘Uqbah bin Nafi’
but was able to escape and in 683 AD led the forces that defeated
the Arabs and killed ‘Uqbah. Kusaylah then proceeded to
take Qayruwan, the city founded by ‘Uqbah, and made it
the capital of his kingdom where he ruled until 688 AD when
the Arabs retook it and in the battle Kusaylah was killed.
13. ‘Uqbah bin Nafi’ brought Ifriqiya or modern
Tunisia under Muslim rule in 670 AD and founded the city of
Qayruwan, the first Muslim city in North Africa. He was later
dismissed as governor, but was restored in 680 AD. In 681 AD
he began his famous raid deep into North Africa penetrating
as far as the Atlantic coast. It is said that the local Byzantine
governor surrendered Tangiers to him but then encouraged him
to turn south rather than north to Spain. ‘Uqbah is said
to have occupied central Morocco, crossed the Atlas mountains
and defeated the Berber tribes in the Dar’ah valley and
the Sus taking the city of Taroudant. He turned to return back
to his capital in Qayruwan, Tunisia, but in eastern Algeria
his forces were surrounded by superior numbers of Berber and
Byzantine troops and he was killed in 683 AD. In the series
Tariq his sons harbor strong anti-Berber sentiments
as a result.
14. Al-Kahinah was queen of the Awras Berbers who lived in
what is today eastern Algeria. She proved to be difficult to
defeat, but eventually her army was defeated in 697/8 AD. Her
real name has been lost and she is known only by the name the
Arabs gave her, al-Kahinah, or the Sorceress. Some segments
of the Awras Berbers had converted to Judaism and others to
Christianity in late antiquity, before the Arab Muslim conquest,
but in the TV series animist practices are emphasized.
15. Musa ibn Nusayr gives Tariq the far Maghrib to rule. Tariq
establishes his capital in Tangiers and continues the siege
of Sebta, the last place to hold out against the Muslims.
16. These conversations take place in the Bishop’s residence
in Seville and even his Jewish servant is not allowed to know
who the visitor is or what they talk about. What is interesting
here is that the series places Muslims in Spain before the official
conquest in 711 AD: the conquest of the heart and mind before
the conquest by the sword.
17. The Jordanian series Imru’ al-Qays was filmed
in Jordan and Morocco. Morocco’s south has featured in
a number of Arab TV productions as well as in a number of recent
Hollywood films such as Gladiator, The Mummy, Alexander
the Great, and Hidalgo.
18. All three of these musalsalat have been shown
on a number of Arab satellite channels through out the years
since they were first broadcast. Zaman al-Wasl has
been shown twice yearly on 2M (Moroccan channel) as well as
on others since its first broadcast in 2002.
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