continued: "The Changing Scene of Lebanese Television" by Nabil H. Dajani
page 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | Notes | References

Notes

1. See, for example, Douglas Boyd, "Lebanese Broadcasting: Unofficial Electronic Media During a Prolonged Civil War," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media (35:3, 1991), Donald Browne, "Television as an Instrument of National Stabilization", Journalism Quarterly, 52 (1975), 692-698, and Dajani, Nabil, Disoriented Media in a Fragmented Society: the Lebanese Experience (Beirut: American University Press, 1992) and Lebanon: Studies in Broadcasting (London: International Institute of Communication, 1979).

2. See, for example, Douglas Boyd, Broadcasting in the Arab World (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1999) and William Rugh, The Arab Press (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1979).

3. "TV networks prepare to wipe out satellite pirates." The Daily Star newspaper, February 25, 1999, 2.

4. For an understanding of Lebanon's socio-political structure see, for example, Leonard Binder, Politics in Lebanon (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1966), Carole Dagher , Bring Down the Walls: Lebanon's Postwar Challenge ( New York: St. Martins Press, 2000), Nazih Richani, Dilemmas of Democracy and Political Parties in Sectarian Societies, ( New York" St. Martins Press,1998) and Kamal Salibi, A House With Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered, (London: I.B. Tauris, 1988).

5. See also Marwan Kraidy, "State Control of Television News in 1990s Lebanon," Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly , 76(3) (1999) 485-498. Michael Johnson in "Political Bosses and Their Gangs: Zu'ama and Qabadayat in the Sunni Quarters of Beirut," in Ernest Gellner and John Waterbury (eds), Patrons and Clients in Mediterranean Societies, ( London : Duckworth, 1977), suggests that governments in Lebanon are run by a coalition of political bosses (zu'ama) who are assisted by tough guys (quabadayat). When the law is in conflict with the interest of these zu'ama it is superseded.

6. Such accusations were voiced among others, at different occasions, by former President Elias Hrawi, Prime Minister Rafik Hariri and Minister Walid Jumblat, all when they were in office.

7. No union or code of ethics exists for television in Lebanon, although the most recent legislation moved in the direction of creating a board that may facilitate developing such a code of ethics.

8. The first non-commercial television station in the Arab world is the Iraqi government television station in Baghdad, which was established in 1957.

9. At the time the ministry was named Ministry of Guidance and News.

10. Samir Makdisi, "An Appraisal of Lebanon's Post War Economic Development and a Look to the Future." The Middle East Journal. (Summer 1977), 267-80.

11. Legislative decree number 770.

12. Early agreements required that the television stations accept, even provide offices on their premises for, two government censors: one representing the Ministry of Interior (who would censor imported programs), and the other representing the Ministry of Information (who would censor local programs).

13. The personnel of Tele Liban staged a number of unsuccessful general strikes.

14. A person who kills a female member of the family for losing her virginity outside wedlock or "tarnishes the family honor" receives a reduced sentence in Lebanon.

15. For an account of television programs in Lebanon see: Nabil Dajani, "An Analysis of the Press in Four Arab Countries," in The Vigilant Press, 1989, (Paris: Unesco Reports and Papers on Mass Communication, No. 103), 75-88, and Dajani, Disoriented Media in a Fragmented Society:, 114-119 and 132-140.

16. "Ministry of Transportation's study on audiovisual channels", an-Nahar newspaper, Tuesday, January 23, 1996, 5.

17. "Minister Mansour presents his plan for reorganizing the audiovisual media," an-Nahar newspaper, August 9, 1991, 3.

18. an-Nahar, ibid. August 9, 1991, 3.

19. "The story of the decree that raised a storm: How it was, how it became, and how it was issued." as-Safir newspaper, January 15, 1992, 3.

20. "Is the Press facing a new battle for its freedom?" an-Nahar, January 21, 1992, 3, and , "A dangerous proposal." as-Safir, January 11, 1992, 3.

21. "Opposing and supporting positions towards the reorganization of the media", as-Safir, January 11, 1992, 2.

22. "The issue of information raises more than one question." as-Safir, January 13, 1992, 3.

23. The government did not keep up to this promise. In March 1994 it restricted broadcasting political news to Tele Liban. The parliament, however, voted to remove this ban few months later.

24. Official Gazette, Law No. 382, special supplement to issue No. 45, November 10, 1994.

25. "Terms of Conditions for Licensing Television Broadcasting," Chapter 5, general rules. See also "Terms of conditions for licensing television broadcasting", an-Nahar newspaper, February 2, 1996, 6, and "Terms of conditions for licensing political and non-political television broadcasting," al-Liwa newspaper, February 5, 1996, 3.

26. Official Gazette, No. 47, September 16, 1996, 3315-3319.

27. See "The information scandal shows, with detailed names, that the freedom of the Lebanese is in the hands of the politicians." ad-Diyar newspaper, October 5, 1996. 1.

28. Al-Manar's website describes its mission as follows: "Lebanese TV channels have been overwhelmed by a trend of movies and programs that can only be described as immoral. At the time when the Lebanese -such as any people coming out of a devastating war-needed what could erase the effects of that conflict and work on building the personality of good citizenship, numerous TV channels have been broadcasting programs that would decay one's ethics and provoke his or her instincts in addition to instigating violence and identifying with western living patterns which are quite remote from our Islamic and Eastern values and culture…" http//www.almanar.com.lb

29. As-Safir newspaper, March 6, 2000.

30. Findings of a study in progress by the author of the media habits among two groups (political elites and workers) in the capital of Lebanon, Beirut, show that all the elite members have television sets and 98% of the workers have at least one television set.

31. "TV networks prepare to wipe out satellite pirates." The Daily Star newspaper, February 25, 1999. 2. Findings of the study in progress by the author show that 90% of the Lebanese elites have cable access compared to 44% of the workers.

32. According to surveys conducted by the Pan Arab Research Center (PARC) during the period December 96-January 97, and by the Middle East Research and Consultancy (MERC) during the period March-April, 1997.

33. See Dajani, Disoriented Media in a Fragmented Society, 132

34. See Nabil Dajani, "Managing the crisis of public services in West Beirut," in Beyhum, Nabil, Reconstruire Beyrouth, (Paris: Etudes Sur LeMonde Arabe No.5, 1991); 195-208, and Dajani, The Vigilant Press, 75-88.

35. Dajani, Disoriented Media in a Fragmented Society. 140.

36. Ali Jamali, "Where does the audience go in the morning, evening and late at night?" as-Safir newspaper, December 2, 1997, 20.