continued: "The Changing Scene of Lebanese Television" by Nabil H. Dajani
page 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | Notes | References

De facto stations are introduced
The deterioration of the state of affairs in Lebanon and the further weakening of the central government during the Amin Jemayel presidency, in the mid 1980s, encouraged some of the warring factions to establish their own pirate television stations. Most important among these were the Lebanese Broadcasting Company (LBC), which was the official organ of one of the warring militias, and Al-Mashrek Television, which was established by politicians opposed to the patrons of LBC. Among the important pirate stations at the time was the New Television (NTV), which was established by the Lebanese communist party and later was bought by independent businessmen.

LBC went on the air in August 1985 and in a short period captured a wide Lebanese audience and became the leading TV station in Lebanon in terms of the variety of its programs and the size of its audience. Al-Mashrek (the Orient) Television began its experimental broadcasting in 1989 and started airing regular programs in April 1990. By the beginning of 1991 it became a serious competitor for both LBC and Tele Liban. Its heavy use of Arabic programs and films attracted large audiences. New Television began its transmission in April 1991. It was mainly commercial and aired programs that had no relationship to the ideology of the communist party.

As was the case with Tele Liban, LBC became subject of a struggle not only of the warring groups but also between the US and French interests who sought to dominate its programs. The early US influence on LBC did not please the French who consequently were able, early in 1988, to prevail on LBC to devote a special channel for strictly French programs. This channel (C33), however, was on the UHF band that was not widely used in Lebanon at the time.

The creation of de facto television stations faced both the Lebanese government and the private sector involved with Tele Liban with a new challenge. The deterioration of the quality of the human element and technical skills at Tele Liban allowed the de facto stations to easily attract Lebanese viewers to their programs and consequently drew advertisers to them. They were also able to attract viewers from different factions to their foreign programs that were of a better quality and more up to date than those of Tele Liban. Additionally, they paid more attention to addressing the daily concerns of the average citizen and attracted audiences to several of their local programs, which were relatively better than those of Tele Liban. However, all television stations were generally indifferent to the public needs for the coverage of subjects that relate to their livelihood (such as the problems of the shortage of electricity and water, pollution, and the high cost of living).

The success of the de facto stations led to heavy losses by Tele Liban. Faced with such competition its officials had to improve their programs. They imported up-to-date foreign serials and arranged for the direct relay of many special world events. They also attempted to introduce administrative reforms within its structure. Additionally Tele Liban officials filed a lawsuit requesting large financial compensation from the three leading de facto stations at the time: LBC, al-Machrek, and NTV.

During a 1989 retreat in the Saudi town of Taif, Lebanese members of the parliament were able to arrive at a regionally and internationally supported agreement that marked the end of the Lebanese civil war. Among other things the Taif Agreement, which was later incorporated in the Lebanese constitution, called for the reorganization of the media in Lebanon. The deliberations of members of the parliament clearly called for legalizing the existing de facto radio and television stations. Consequently, upon the signing of this agreement many politicians and businessmen hurried to set up television stations so as to establish their "right" for a television license. According to an ITU expert forty six television stations were set up in a matter of few months and some ten of the new stations were on the air by the end of 1991, transmitting on UHF channels as all the VHF channels were already in use (16).

Television legislation becomes an urgent need
The increasing number of television stations resulted in confusion and chaos in the broadcasting medium. This happened at the beginning of the Elias Hrawi presidency, which had the enormous job of re-establishing government authority after the civil war. The first Hrawi government felt the urgency for introducing new legislation that puts order into the broadcasting field. Thus in 1991 the Minister of Information recommended the reorganization of television broadcasting in Lebanon. The proposed reorganization would grant licenses to stations whose total assets are Lebanese and require new stations to broadcast exclusively on UHF channels. To oversee broadcasting the Minister recommended setting up an Independent National Communication Agency that would grant broadcasting licenses and insure that the different broadcasting media operate within the technical and professional regulations set by it (17).

In order not to upset the delicate status quo, the Minister recommended that, exceptionally Tele Liban be requested to lease some of its channels to the de facto stations in return for a fee. This would insure the rights of Tele Liban and would provide it with funds to improve its facilities and services. At the same time, this arrangement would allow the de facto stations to continue their operation (18).

The recommendations of the Minister were referred to a special ministerial committee. The committee's deliberations were the basis of a January 1992 Council of Ministers decision which stated that "all television institutions which are presently operating de facto and in contradiction to the existing laws as well as anybody who wishes to invest in television must submit, within a period of one month, an application for commercial television broadcasting." The Council of Ministers also requested the ministerial committee to "draw out, for the consideration and approval of the Council of Ministers, the conditions for rental of, and investing in, television channels" (19).

The decision by the Council of Ministers raised a public uproar not because of what it stated but because of what was reportedly said in the deliberations of the ministers. According to press reports the deliberations dealt with the possibility of restricting television news to Tele Liban (20). Press reports suggested that both the President and the Prime Minister called for an end to the chaos and lack of restraint in the operation of media institutions.

Several members of the Council of Ministers and numerous politicians issued statements criticizing the deliberations. The ambassadors of England, France, the United States and the Vatican also made statements supporting freedom of the press (21). One paper reported that an ambassador of a prominent country declared that suppressing news on television was a demand "forced on the government" from outside but that "freedom in Lebanon is a red line which may not be crossed without negatively affecting the country." (22)

A spokesman for the Prime Minister promptly denied that a decision was taken to restrict television news to Tele Liban (23). The ministerial committee quickly addressed itself to the task of drafting proposals for legalizing the de facto stations. It recommended that, until a new law governing broadcasting in Lebanon is issued, the de facto stations be given annual leases, not licenses, on the available UHF channels.

Two years of indecision and delays lapsed before the Council of Ministers finally approved a draft law regulating the chaotic use of the broadcasting channels in Lebanon. The new law was adopted with minor modifications by the Lebanese parliament in November 1994 (24). The influence of the very active audio-visual lobby was clear in the amendments adopted by the parliament; notably abolishing the item limiting the time devoted to advertising. No time limit for airing advertisements exists under this law. Under the terms of this law also Tele Liban was to be fully owned by the government and its exclusive television broadcasting right was to be revoked in return for granting it the right to broadcast on all the VHF channels and one UHF channel. No compensation by the de facto stations was granted to Tele Liban.

The law requires that establishing TV stations inside Lebanese territories or its national waters be subject to prior licensing (chapter 2, article five). The duration of the license is sixteen years, renewable (chapter 5, article twenty-six). Licenses are granted by a government decree after consulting a new council established by this law, "the National Council of Audio Visual Media" (National Council). This council has the power to recommend the suspension or closure of stations. It is formed of ten members appointed jointly by the government and parliament (chapter five, article seventeen).

The law classifies television stations according to the following:

"First Category: TV stations that transmit visual programs, including news and political programs, covering all the Lebanese territory.
"Second Category: TV stations that transmit visual programs, except news and political programs, covering all the Lebanese territory.
"Third Category: TV stations that transmit coded signals that can only be received by subscribers who possess the necessary technical equipment.
"Fourth Category: International TV stations that transmit via satellite and whose coverage goes beyond the Lebanese territory." (Chapter three, article ten).

According to the new law granting a broadcasting license requires, among other things, obtaining approved technical transmission standards; meeting the necessary operational standards in terms of its human and physical resources, and presenting evidence of its ability to sustain expenses for at least its first year of licensing. The law, furthermore, compels the station to broadcast a volume of local production that is fixed by the "terms of conditions" of broadcasting in Lebanon (chapter two, article seven).

The law provides for a technical committee, "The TV and Radio Transmission Organization Committee," to draw the "terms of conditions" for broadcasting and to study all the technical broadcasting aspects and submit recommendations to the Minister of Information (chapter two, article eight).

Furthermore, the law limits granting radio and television licenses to Lebanese citizens or companies. The number of licenses is also limited to one for individual companies or persons. It does not allow "for a person or entity to own directly or indirectly more than ten percent of the total company shares. The husband or wife and all direct relatives are considered to be one person or entity." (Chapter four, article thirteen).

Under the terms of the audio-visual law broadcasting stations are not allowed to operate at a financial deficit for a prolonged period. The licensed station has to submit to the Ministry of Information a statement of its accounts. The technical committee entrusted to draw the "terms of conditions" for the operation of TV stations proposed a number of meaningful technical and environmental requirements but failed to require the quality and quantity of local programs essential for a country that is flooded with canned programs. The "terms of conditions" sets the required local programs to 16.6 % of the total aired programs. It requires only half an hour of weekly transmission of local educational programs and another weekly half an hour for rural and agricultural programs. (25)

The new law was faced with immense public debate. Again the influence of the very active audio-visual lobby was clear in the press campaigns and statements by politicians warning against "the dangers to freedom in Lebanon." Clearly owners of the de facto stations and the political opposition were afraid of the way licenses will be granted. They were correct in their fear. In September 1996 the government granted licenses to four television stations, other than Tele Liban. The four belonged to members of the government or their relatives, maintaining the sensitive religious sectarian balance, which is of paramount importance in Lebanese politics.

The stations that received licenses were 1. The Lebanese Broadcasting Company International (LBCI, formerly LBC), which represents the Maronite Christians and whose shareholders included prominent members of the government; 2. Future Television, representing the Sunni Moslems and owned by the then Prime Minister; 3. Murr Television (MTV), representing the Greek Orthodox Christians and owned by the family of the then Minister of Interior, and 4. The National Broadcasting Network (NBN), representing the Shiite Moslems and owned by the family and supporters of the Speaker of the House of Parliament. (26)

The government decision was faced with a public uproar because it was based more on political and sectarian than on professional grounds (27). Stations that were not licensed refused to stop broadcasting. The government used both threats and promises to implement its decision. In some instances it used force to close some stations but in others it allowed some to appeal the decision. Only one additional television station, al-Manar, the organ of the Islamic Hizbollah Party, which started broadcasting in June 1991 and spoke for the resistance against the occupation of South Lebanon, received a license, in July 1996 (28). However, a Christian religious station Tele Lumiere continues to broadcast without a license but with tacit government approval.

This encouraged the Moslem religious authorities to begin experimental broadcasts for the Holy Koran TV and a number of other religious stations asked for similar treatment but no official action was taken. As religious authorities are very powerful in Lebanon the Council of Ministers took a decision to provide the opportunity for the different religious communities to air their religious programs through a special channel to be made available to them by the government owned Tele Liban. Until this channel is made available the authorities keep silent about the de facto (illegal) operation of these stations. In a newspaper interview the Lebanese Minister of Information declared that the government expects that the programs aired by the religious stations be in agreement with the Lebanese basic positions and with the constitution of the country in a way that will strengthen common citizenship and the service of the nation. (29)

An opponent of the previous regime, Salim el Hoss, headed the Lebanese Council of Ministers when a new president, Emile Lahoud, took office. The new government reconsidered the applications rejected by the previous regime and consequently three more licenses were granted. Interestingly, the stations receiving the new licenses were ones that opposed the former Prime Minister, Rafik Hariri. These are: the New Television (NTV), in June 1999; The Independent Communication Channel International (ICNI) and United Television (UTV), both in September 1999.

While newspaper readership is not widely spread in Lebanon and the Arab world in general, radio and television are available in almost every household in Lebanese urban areas (30). Television reception is not only of Lebanese local channels but the cable connection is widely spread in the major Lebanese cities. continued

Next page: Development of satellite broadcasting
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Notes | References